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Please read the following documents to learn more about Project Seahorse's position on conservation issues:
Keeping seahorses and pipefishes in aquaria
Seahorse Aquaculture
Release of captive-bred and captive-held syngnathids into the wild
Interspecific hybridization of seahorses and pipefishes
CITES Appendix II listing
Collecting syngnathids for scientific research & teaching
Project Seahorse recognizes that a sustainable trade in syngnathids for the public aquarium market has a role to play in the
conservation of seahorses and pipefishes (syngnathids). All consumers of syngnathids need to be mindful of the considerable
pressures being placed on wild populations through habitat change, incidental capture in non-selective fishing gear, and direct
fishing. Extraction of fishes for ornamental display applies a direct pressure on many syngnathid populations, and we encourage
the aquarium community to minimize its impacts and engage in conservation efforts.
The potential benefits of the aquarium trade are many and varied:
- giving a tangible value to wild syngnathid populations should help heighten local willingness to protect and manage them appropriately;
- a well-managed target fishery for the aquarium trade may be preferable to fishers undertaking more destructive means of obtaining an income, such as mining coral reefs or dynamite fishing;
- syngnathids held in zoos and aquaria may provide a safety net against population declines or local extinctions (see Project Seahorse position statements on Releases and hybridization);
- holding and displaying syngnathids can heighten awareness of marine conservation issues and engage public support;
- holding syngnathids in an aquarium environment provides the opportunity to study and improve our knowledge of their biology.
The following aspects of the aquarium trade currently cause concern with regard to conservation efforts
- the over-exploitation of certain populations of syngnathids for the aquarium trade
- the high mortalities both within the trade and at the end user facilities that fuel the need for increased collection of syngnathids;
- the low price paid to fishers relative to the end value that forces them to over-exploit syngnathid populations;
- the lack of information regarding the origins and taxonomy of traded syngnathids hamper collective breeding programmes;
- the independent breeding ventures without any real conservation focus that divert resources from collective breeding programmes;
- releases of syngnathids from captive populations with associated disease and competition issues that may negatively impact wild populations (see Project Seahorse position statement on Releases).
We are also concerned with the welfare of fishes kept under poor conditions, but as this is not a conservation issue per se,
It will not be addressed in this document.
Exhibition of syngnathids provides the opportunity to convey educational messages regarding marine conservation to the
public. In order to ensure that the growing conservation interest in this consumer group is supported by action, we would
recommend that institutions consider the following points when establishing an exhibit using syngnathids:
- identify all species that you hold based on best available knowledge of the status of wild populations;
- display and disseminate conservation messages highlighting threats to wild syngnathid populations;
- integrate the aims of the exhibit with those of the relevant regional species management or conservation-breeding programme;
- use formal and standard record keeping techniques and offer information to assist with collation of biological data;
- allocate resources to syngnathid research as a key component of the exhibit development;
- increase tangible conservation benefits for the species through involvement with field projects.
Project Seahorse recommends that any breeding of syngnathid species be undertaken in a carefully managed way
with population control and distribution conducted in accordance with the relevant co-ordinated management or breeding
programme. Until recently, work with syngnathids in public zoos and aquaria has focused on increasing breeding and rearing
success. Subsequent distribution of captive-reared stock has occurred despite uncertainties regarding taxonomy (see Project
Seahorse position statement on hybridization) and the long-term effects of captive breeding e.g. fecundity, health and
genetic viability (see Project Seahorse position statement on Releases). Most syngnathid populations currently held in zoos
and aquaria should not be considered as suitable for a managed breeding programme, though they may be appropriate for
display, education and some research purposes.
Project Seahorse encourages zoos and aquaria to focus energy on improving dialogue with the trade and increasing awareness of
conservation and welfare issues. We support efforts by organizations such as the Marine Aquarium Council
(www.aquariumcouncil.org) to regulate and improve
conditions in the trade in marine fishes.
Project Seahorse recommends that breeding of syngnathids only be undertaken by those with the necessary time and resources
to contribute their efforts to collaborative management or breeding programmes. We recognize the existence of a legitimate trade
in syngnathids for the hobbyist market and that many amateur aquarists are holding syngnathids with the intention of
contributing to conservation. However, simply purchasing and holding syngnathids provides little if any conservation support and
may be adding to the pressure on wild populations. Successfully maintaining syngnathids in an aquarium environment depends
upon a high investment in time and financial resources. The need for live food cultures, frequent feeding and tank maintenance,
combined with a high susceptibility to a range of bacterial and parasitic infections make seahorses generally unsuitable for all
but the most committed hobbyist.
Certain strains of captive-bred seahorse appear to be better adapted to the aquarium environment, possibly as a result
of selective breeding and management. These strains may be more suitable to the home hobbyists with limited resources who
wish to hold syngnathids. A number of commercial and public-funded institutions have been distributing captive-reared
syngnathids within the public aquarium and hobbyist communities, claiming to be assisting conservation by reducing the need
for the collection of wild fish.
It remains questionable whether this practice currently offers any real long-term conservation benefit given the complex
inter-dependence between source fishing communities and the aquarium trade (see Project Seahorse position statement on
Aquaculture). We recommend that anyone considering acquiring seahorses ensure that they come from a sustainable source if
wild caught (www.aquariumcouncil.org), or from a source actively contributing
to syngnathid conservation if captive-bred.
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Project Seahorse supports environmentally and socially responsible syngnathid aquaculture. Syngnathid aquaculture has
received much attention recently both as a potentially lucrative commercial venture and as a tool in the conservation of wild
populations. From a conservation perspective, cultured syngnathids could serve to reduce the current exploitation rates of wild
syngnathids and to meet any future increases in global demand. However, syngnathid aquaculture needs to be approached cautiously
as it could also damage the marine environment and harm wild syngnathid populations. Three main issues that need to be addressed
before commercial syngnathid culturing could begin to be genuinely useful in syngnathid conservation are (1) economic viability,
(2) environmental impacts and (3) conservation value. Project Seahorse regards the assessment of economic viability through
pilot studies and the mitigation of environmental impacts as mandatory to any aquaculture operation. We also strongly encourage
all syngnathid aquaculture ventures to ensure that their operations benefit the conservation of wild syngnathids.
The economic viability of syngnathid culturing has yet to be demonstrated conclusively as most past attempts have ended
in failure and existing ventures are relatively new. To date, the term "syngnathid culturing" has most commonly
referred only to wild-caught pregnant males giving birth in captivity or to syngnathids mating in captivity, with subsequent
births. Both are relatively easy. The difficulty comes in rearing large portions of the brood to market size, which usually
takes many months to a year. Syngnathid culturing will only be economically viable when sufficiently large numbers of young
can reared through to market size in a cost-effective manner. Moreover, the acceptability and price of cultured syngnathids
in the appropriate marketplace need to be ascertained beforehand.
Improving the economic viability of syngnathid aquaculture has proven technically challenging because of problems with diet
and disease. Syngnathids are predatory and many species will essentially only eat live prey, which adds considerably to the
cost and complexity of any culturing effort. In addition, scrupulous hygiene and good water quality are required to prevent
these fishes from succumbing to a wide array of parasitic, fungal and bacterial ailments. Despite numerous claims of
successful breeding and rearing in some species, there is a distinct lack of rigorous scientific publications to substantiate
these claims. Research on syngnathid husbandry and culturing is of limited value to conservation efforts unless the general
findings are published or otherwise made available for use in the conservation of wild syngnathids.
Given the economic uncertainties in syngnathid culturing, small-scale studies using minimal numbers of animals should be
carried out prior to the initiation of any large-scale culturing efforts. These studies should ensure the following:
- the reproductive biology of the particular species has been thoroughly investigated;
- reliable breeding and culturing techniques have been developed;
- the operation can repeatedly rear a sufficiently high percentage of young to market size at viable cost;
- cultured syngnathids will be acceptable in the trade at economically viable prices.
Any aquaculture activity that removes animals from the sea, either as broodstock or for fish food, and discharges
effluent into the sea will have an impact on the marine environment. Aquaculture has had numerous well-documented
detrimental effects on the environment over the past few decades. Potential damage to the marine environment needs to be
assessed and mitigation programs implemented before syngnathid culturing is initiated, as any activity that further degrades
the marine environment is unlikely to be in the interest of wild syngnathid populations. Syngnathid aquaculture ventures
need to demonstrate the following:
- source populations are sufficiently well-understood that broodstock can be removed without damaging them;
- the culturing operation will only remove the minimum number of wild animals required to maintain the long-term genetic health of its captive-bred broodstock;
- any long-term capture of wild food for the syngnathids does not negatively affect the local marine ecosystem;
- effluent discharged from the facility will not be detrimental to the local marine environment;
- the risk of escape of captive-bred syngnathids into the marine ecosystem, where they could cause disease, behavioural and genetic problems, is minimised.
One fallacy in syngnathid aquaculture is the belief that the availability of cultured syngnathids will automatically
reduce the exploitation of wild syngnathid populations. Whether syngnathid culturing reduces the exploitation of wild
syngnathid populations or not will partly depend on its effects on subsistence fishing communities in source countries.
Syngnathid fishers are commonly so poor that they cannot stop catching syngnathids unless they earn money in other ways. One
outcome of syngnathid culturing in countries that do not traditionally exploit syngnathids might be reduced prices for
syngnathids in source countries. This would either (a) force fishers to catch more syngnathids in order to meet their basic
needs or (b) move them from one diminished resource to another, creating new conservation problems. Aquaculture is likely to
be of greatest conservation value where it facilitates syngnathid fishers becoming syngnathid farmers, thereby directly
reducing pressure on wild syngnathid populations.
Syngnathid aquaculture ventures should respect international conventions such as the United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD) [www.biodiv.org]. One of the key elements
of the CBD is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from the exploitation of genetic (biological) resources
between countries that commercialise these resources (generally developed countries) and the source countries (generally
developing countries). Unless fishing communities derive equitable benefit from their biological resources (e.g. syngnathids),
there will be no reason for them to protect and manage these resources in a sustainable manner. The result may be an increase
in environmentally destructive activities such as coral mining and mangrove clearance. Any culturing of syngnathid species
in non-source countries should, therefore, actively seek to ensure that fishing communities within the source countries
benefit equitably from these endeavors. While contributions to syngnathid conservation may take many forms, the equitable
sharing of benefits with source communities must be given priority in any conservation-oriented aquaculture venture.
Syngnathid aquaculture ventures need to recognise the special responsibilities inherent in working with threatened species.
Conventional business strategies such as price competition and the development of new markets need to be tempered by a clear
understanding of the local and global impacts of such strategies on wild syngnathid populations. Strategies that lead to a
decrease in the price of syngnathids and/or an increase in the volume traded could potentially cause increased exploitation
of wild syngnathids. Such strategies should be avoided.
Syngnathid aquaculture ventures should ensure that
- the international impact on subsistence fishers (and thus wild syngnathids) has been addressed,
- international conventions such as the Convention on Biological Diversity are respected, and
- the culturing operation will not promote new trade - or increase existing trade - in wild syngnathids.
The majority of syngnathid aquaculture ventures have yet to prove environmentally and economically viable in the long
term. Moreover, despite numerous claims to the contrary, their conservation benefits are often highly questionable.
Aquaculture ventures that only ensure that their operation is economically and environmentally sound are essentially purely
commercial enterprises that do little to assist global efforts to protect wild syngnathids. In contrast, ventures that also
address the global conservation impacts of their activities could potentially have significant conservation benefits.
Project Seahorse strongly encourages syngnathid aquaculture ventures to address all three issues, thereby helping to
conserve wild syngnathid populations. We are willing to assist syngnathid aquaculture ventures in addressing global
syngnathid conservation issues, where necessary.
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Project Seahorse encourages the careful management of captive syngnathids so as to ensure that casual releases into
natural habitats do not occur. Syngnathid populations are threatened in some parts of the world and the release of
captive-bred or captive-held animals is often viewed as a useful method of bolstering these threatened wild populations. The
prospect of captive breeding for release into the wild is also sometimes used as justification for holding animals in captive
populations, a means of disposing of unwanted or surplus stock, or a public relations gesture to attract support for an
enterprise. The release of captive animals must, however, be approached carefully as it has the potential to severely damage
wild syngnathid populations and marine ecosystems. The Re-introduction Specialist Group (RSG) of the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) notes that formal releases are lengthy, complex and expensive processes that require preparatory and follow-up
activities. They should not be attempted without guaranteed long-term financial, political and local support, and the RSG
strongly discourages casual releases.
The four main types of releases need to be differentiated as the severity of their impacts varies.
- Translocation is the transfer of wild syngnathids from one site to another where conditions may be different. Translocated syngnathids may be held in captivity for variable periods of time before being released into the new site.
- Supplementation is the release of captive syngnathids into an area where a wild population still exists.
- Re-introduction is the release of captive syngnathids into an area where the local population has been extirpated (gone extinct locally).
- Introduction is the release of non-native (exotic) syngnathids into an area where there has never been a population of that species.
Three main conservation issues may arise from planned or accidental releases.
- Disease transmission: diseases may be transmitted from released syngnathids to wild syngnathids.
- Genetic threats: released syngnathids may threaten the genetic diversity of wild populations.
- Community disruptions: released syngnathids may disrupt the structure and function of marine communities.
The release of captive animals must be managed carefully to diminish the risk of disease transmission to wild
populations. While disease undoubtedly occurs in wild populations, it is unlikely to reach the proportions and severity seen
in many culturing and holding facilities where animals are often maintained at unnaturally high densities in artificial
conditions. All animals in captivity, unlike those in the wild, may survive for long periods of time because of the absence
of predators and use of medications. Most worryingly, disease treatments have the potential to hide the effects of a
disease-causing organism without necessarily eradicating it. Thorough screening procedures are, therefore, essential in any
program that transfers captive syngnathids into the wild.
The risk of disease transmission is increased when non-native syngnathids are introduced into an area. Introduced syngnathids
may bring with them new disease organisms against which local species may have little or no natural resistance. The potential for
disease transmission from captive to wild populations has been highlighted in the salmon and prawn aquaculture industries in
North America, Asia, Europe and elsewhere. Where these impacts have occurred, the effects on wild populations have been severe.
The genetic diversity of wild populations could be threatened when captive-bred animals are released into the wild.
Captive-bred animals are usually obtained from a very limited number of parent animals (founders). Their genetic diversity
may, therefore, be quite low in comparison to that found in the wild. If large numbers of these animals are released into
an area, there is a very real risk that they could swamp the genetic diversity of the recipient wild population, thus
lowering its overall genetic diversity in the long term. This is problematic as genetic diversity acts as a safeguard against
randomly occurring events such as disease epidemics and environmental changes that may otherwise destroy entire local
populations. Without this diversity, populations are far more vulnerable to such events. Risks are exacerbated if the
released syngnathids are from a captive population that differs genetically from the wild population as this may also lead
to fundamental alterations in the genetic structure of the wild population.
The artificial conditions associated with culturing may result in captive-bred fishes having different genetic traits from
those in the wild. Thus, the released fishes may be genetically less adapted to conditions in the natural habitat. In the
simplest case, the released animals die soon after release, with relatively few conservation consequences. If, however,
these animals survive to breed with wild conspecifics, unsuitable genetic traits may be passed on to future generations.
This could eventually lead to a reduction in the long-term viability of the wild population, as has occurred, for example,
in trout.
The risk of disruptions to marine communities is perhaps most pronounced when exotic species are introduced into an area.
Such introductions may disrupt the structure and function of the local ecosystem, and lead to the extirpation (localized
extinction) or extinction of native species. In most cases, the introduced species dies shortly after being released because
of incompatibility with the new environment. In numerous well-known cases, however, the introduced species thrives. The
introduction of an exotic syngnathid species into the marine environment, therefore, could potentially lead to the
establishment of a viable population that may compete with local species for food and habitat. This could potentially have
severe detrimental impacts on the local species and community. Numerous examples of problems associated with the introduction
of exotics into aquatic systems exist all over the world. Australia, for example, has a list of noxious introduced fishes,
such as the ubiquitous tilapia, goldfish and carp, which are to be destroyed when caught.
The release of captive syngnathids into areas where wild populations of the same species are present carries with it the risk
that a sudden influx of new individuals into a small area could result in changes in the social structure of the wild
population as a result of increased competition for food, shelter and mates. Such alterations in social and community
structure may have negative effects on the viability of the wild population.
The re-introduction of captive syngnathids needs to be managed carefully. Many syngnathid populations are declining
relatively rapidly and there may well be specific cases in the future where re-introductions may have to be considered. One
example might be the Knysna syngnathid (H. capensis), which was recently moved from Vulnerable to Endangered on the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species. The limited and fragmented distribution of this species coupled with the potential for pollution
in its estuarine environment renders H. capensis at risk of extirpation. Should this occur, the formal re-introduction of
captive-bred syngnathids may become necessary. However, the ill-planned or casual release of syngnathids could have
disastrous impacts on the wild population, through the introduction of disease, for example. Thorough preparatory activities
must be conducted prior to any release being initiated and a long-term monitoring program put into place. Moreover, the
factors leading to the original decline in the wild population would also need to be addressed, and management plans set in
place to avoid a similar extirpation of the introduced population.
Releases can potentially severely harm wild populations of syngnathids. The release of captive syngnathids into the wild
is an increasingly common activity around the world and is often mistakenly viewed as a valuable contribution to the
conservation of wild syngnathids. It would be far better for concerned individuals and organisations to spend their
resources on managing wild syngnathid populations in a sustainable manner and to focus on removing the factors that threaten
syngnathids in the first place. If conservation is the goal, it will always be preferable to seek to increase the viability
of wild populations than to bring animals into captivity for rearing and subsequent release.
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Project Seahorse cautions against mating across different species (hybridization) of seahorses and pipefishes (syngnathids).
Trade in hybrid offspring of such matings may compromise captive breeding programmes and release of hybrids poses high risks
to wild populations.
In order to reduce the potential for hybridization we recommend that anyone currently holding or intending to hold
syngnathids:
- maintains single-species tanks wherever possible;
- considers giving the name of any doubtful syngnathids to the genus level only e.g. naming seahorses simply as Hippocampus spp;
- avoids distributing any syngnathids that remain unidentified at the species level without full disclosure of their status (see www.wildlife-countryside.detr.gov.uk/gwd/index.htm for links to Zoos Forum and the Zoos Standards page);
- refrains from acquiring syngnathids for any collective breeding programme without reliable information on their origins and taxonomy (this may require genetic or morphological investigation);
- uses syngnathids with questionable origins or taxonomy only for display or educational work and control their populations carefully.
Aquarists will need to be careful about avoiding hybrids, especially as such general confusion about sources and identities
(taxonomy) of syngnathids still prevails. As with all other species, syngnathids specie are generally reproductively isolated
from each other in the wild. Biological or physical barriers usually preclude hybridization in the wild, even where species'
ranges overlap. The aquarium environment can actually promote hybridization by removing these barriers, and by holding
geographically separate species together at high densities. Aquarists should also note that hybrids - which may appear
desirable because of their unusual features - might display reduced survivability and reproductive potential when compared to
the parent species.
Project Seahorse is concerned that syngnathid hybridization in the aquarium community will hamper the development of
collective programmes of captive breeding (see Project Seahorse Aquarium position statement). A key goal of such work is to
ensure that the most genetically diverse and healthy populations of syngnathids, of known origin and founder number are
retained. Achieving this goal means that all information about the animals involved must be very accurate, and fully
shared.
It is important to realise that release of hybrids, accidentally or by intention, may severely damage wild syngnathid
populations (see Project Seahorse Releases position statement). Public zoos and aquaria have guidelines on disposal of
animals but these do not control the fate of animals in the private domain. Hybrids that survive release may successfully
mate with wild syngnathids and potentially introduce new and harmful genetic material to the native population, thereby
reducing survival, growth and reproductive output. Different populations and species of syngnathids that have evolved in
different geographic regions and under different conditions display local adaptations, regulated in part by their genetic
material. Successive breeding with released hybrid syngnathids could gradually destroy local population adaptations that have
taken millions of years to evolve, reducing the population's chances of survival.
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CITES seeks to protect wildlife that are at risk because of international trade. It is not a conservation treaty per se
and does not address conservation problems arising from domestic trade within a nation or from non-trade causes. The 160
current member countries of CITES agree on lists of species to be entered in Appendices that denote trade restrictions. These
are updated at the Conferences of the Parties held approximately every two years, and are legally binding to member states
that have signed the treaty.
- Appendix I lists species currently threatened with extinction for which trade would further endanger the survival of the species. Permits for trade in such species are only granted in exceptional circumstances.
- Appendix II lists species not necessarily threatened with extinction at present, but may become so unless trade in specimens of the species is controlled. Permits must be sought for trade. Domestic policy in some countries may prohibit trade in Appendix II species.
- Appendix III lists species which are subject to trade regulation to prevent or restrict exploitation, largely in support of national policies.
Project Seahorse asks that all seahorses for research and teaching
be obtained in a manner that minimises impacts on wild populations. Globally, syngnathids are threatened
by direct exploitation, incidental capture and habitat degradation. Any study that requires the sacrifice
of animals from wild populations must establish the need for the study, the objectives and hypotheses of the study,
and the scientific merit of the study. A peer reviewed scientific proposal is an important, but insufficient basis
for planning the research. While it is recognized that removing animals from the wild could have impacts on their
local populations and/or their habitats, collection of syngnathid specimens from the wild for scientific research or
teaching is sometimes necessary and justified. Management and conservation of wild animal populations requires life
history information. Where critical life history parameters (e.g. age and gamete production) cannot be obtained from
live animals, then humane sacrifice of restricted numbers of animals may be justified. In designing collection
protocols, it is essential to demonstrate that the information will lead to improved management and conservation of
the species. Most research institutes have mandatory ethics protocols that have to be satisfied before research can
proceed. These ethics protocols provide a useful guide to researchers when considering the collection of animals from
the wild, although they are often not sufficient guarantees of minimal impacts on wild populations.
Collections of wild syngnathid specimens should be undertaken only if all other options are unsuitable. Better options
could include:
- Dead animals already held in collections, such as those in museums. These institutions often have internet-based catalogues that can be accessed by researchers. Project Seahorse also holds a sizeable collection of preserved specimens; these can be accessed by contacting Project Seahorse directly (info@projectseahorse.org).
- Photographs or video taken by the researcher in situ or sourced from previous research.
- Syngnathids obtained from aquaria (public or hobby) or aquaculture.
- Non-destructive sampling for tissue, such as fin clips.
- Live animals observed or sampled in situ in a manner that will not disrupt wild populations.
If collections are necessary, the researcher should consider (i) the conservation status of the species (see the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species - www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/red-lists.htm)
and (ii) current fishery/exploitation levels (if any). If seahorses are captured either by target fisheries
or as by-catch, then the researcher should consider obtaining specimens from the fishery rather than collecting specimens themselves.
This will reduce the impact on the population since the fish would have been captured anyway. It should be noted, however, that samples obtained
through a fishery are not always suitable for certain life history parameters. The key issue is one of sampling design: fishery-collected specimens may
have been collected in a biased manner, particularly with respect to population structure (e.g. only certain sizes may have been taken).
If samples are obtained from a fishery, it is important to have close consultation with the fishers, clearly explaining the
purpose of the study, that the collection is short-term, will not be ongoing, and therefore does not constitute an additional
market or demand in the fishery. Using specimens collected by local fishers can have benefits, such as facilitation of a
two-way exchange of information about syngnathid conservation. The use of animals from an existing fishery means that there
is no added mortality to the fished population.
If the population in question is not exploited, then the impact of collecting animals for research purposes needs to be very
carefully assessed; the population may or may not be more stable and secure than an exploited population, with a need to
adjust removal accordingly.
Whether fishers or researchers collect the specimens, the protocol for collection should minimize effects on the source
populations and their habitats. However, this must be balanced with the need for a scientifically valid study. Once the
goals of the study have been carefully articulated, then the number of animals sacrificed should be the minimum number
required to ensure sufficient power of any statistical tests, or sufficient confidence in the estimation of the parameter.
The researcher must be able to justify the sample size that has been chosen, remembering that taking too few can invalidate
the research, and thus waste the sacrificed animals. Any killing of animals must seek to avoid pain and suffering.
Making the sacrificed animals available to other researchers is a good way to maximize use of specimens. It is also important
to ensure that permit and ethics protocol requirements are met well in advance and all necessary conditions are fulfilled
with respect to collection, shipping and record-keeping. This latter point is particularly important: meticulous labeling
is vital if the dead seahorses are to be useful for other researchers.
Any use of syngnathids in research and teaching must be carried out in accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD). This Convention requires respect for local peoples' rights to their biological resources and may have implications for
researchers and teachers (see www.biodiv.org). |
